Prostitution Should Be Legal Essays - Sex Industry, Prostitution

Prostitution Should be Legal Referred to as the "oldest profession", prostitution ". . . has long been a problem which has provoked and disturbed Americans" (Kinsie 3). "Prostitution [is] the performance of sexual acts, solely for the purpose of material gain" (James [NA]). Prostitution remains, excepted and considered normal in some cultures. No gender specifics exist for prostitutes , but female prostitutes comprise the majority of prostitutes. A person male and married characterizing the majority of prostitutes clients, commonly referred to as a "John". Surprisingly, but true, US prostitutes work legally in some areas. "Prostitution is currently illegal in all 50 states" (Flowers 8), with the exception of 12 rural counties in Nevada. A variety of different types of prostitutes exist: streetwalkers, call girls, massage parlor/brothel/in house prostitutes, madams, indentured sex slaves, escort service prostitutes, professional dominatrics, homeless, drug addicted and part time prostitutes (Flowers 18, 19). In 1995, approximately 95,000 arrests were made (70% female prostitutes, 20% male prostitutes and 10% customers), mostly streetwalkers; a misdemeanor typically resulting in a fine, occasionally a 30-day jail term. More importantly than numbers, what motivates one to choose a career of prostitution? Perhaps persuasion, coercion, abuse, addiction or poor conditions/lifestyle and the financial lure. Legalizing prostitution ensures regulation and taxation, allowing the police to deal with more violent crimes and reduce the abuse of prostitutes by "Pimps". There remain many reasons why one may favor the illegal status of prostitution. Some see the "profession" as exploitive to women, a ". . . form of sexual slavery" (Abraham 1). Feminists claim that prostitution reinforces the status that women represent objects, undoing the prevails of women in the past. Yet still, many believe in neo-Victorism, a condescending belief that prostitutes are unaware of their action and need someone with more education to protect them (Abraham 1). Much of the public describes the profession of prostitution as dirty, immoral and degrading. For many, prostitution results in a destructive, abusive "career" in which Pimps, those who "own" and distribute prostitutes for the benefit of financial gain, and Johns abuse and violate women. Prostitution also greatly affects the community and the public. Those who use prostitutes for their pleasure risk the contraction of diseases, thus spreading with each new sexual partner, endangering the lives of many. Although valid reasons justify why one would want to keep prostitution with an illegal status, the benefits far out way the negative aspects of prostitution. Legalizing the profession increases the quality of lives for those who partake in prostitution as a career and those who "use" the business they offer. Legalization of prostitution allows regulation, requiring medical examination of prostitutes on a regular basis, helping to reduce the transfer of STDs and communicable diseases. According to the US Department of Health, 3% to 5% of STDs in the United States are linked to prostitutes (Prostitution in the US . . . [NA]). These relatively small numbers results in a "domino effect". If someone contracts a disease during an interlude with a prostitute, each sexual partner thereafter carries the potential risk of "contamination". In addition, the health of prostitutes most likely increases. Early detection and treatment of STDs, diseases or illnesses, and drug addiction constitute likely results of prostitution legalization. These actions increase the likelihood of prostitutes' good health, resulting in a safer environment for their clients as well. Exploitation from pimps eliminates with the legalization of prostitution. Pimps usually take a large portion of the prostitutes profit, up to 50% and sometimes more. This exploitation includes abuse, both physical and mental, often leading to murder. A legal status of prostitution allows prostitutes to work for themselves, or in a safe, controlled environment, such as a licensed brothel. Legalization allows for taxation of prostitution wages, like any other employment. Taxation of prostitution results in increased taxes collected by cities, counties and states. By taxation, prostitutes enjoy the benefits of unemployment insurance, disability insurance and social security, thus ensuring prostitutes the choice of continuing or discontinuing their career in prostitution. Cities, counties and states profit by taxation and legalizing prostitution results in a reduction of criminal prosecution costs. "Average arrest, court [and] incarceration costs amount to nearly $2000 per arrest. Cities spend an average of $7.5 million on prostitution control every year. Ranging from $1 million (Memphis) to $23 million (New York)" (Prostitution in the US. . . [NA]). This extra money and time provides police more time to deal with and prosecute violent crimes. The elimination of the prosecution of prostitutes saves time and money for the justice system

Learning Mechanisms Associated with Referent Selection and Retention in 18-24 Month Old Children Essays

Learning Mechanisms Associated with Referent Selection and Retention in 18-24 Month Old Children Essays Learning Mechanisms Associated with Referent Selection and Retention in 18-24 Month Old Children Essay Learning Mechanisms Associated with Referent Selection and Retention in 18-24 Month Old Children Essay Learning Mechanisms Associated with Referent Selection and Retention in 18-24 Month Old Children Children are different from the adults especially in the way they visualize and conceptualize ideas and synthesize complex information as compared to adults. The learning environment in which a child is brought up dictates how fast the child is able to integrate into the formal school setup. In researching and studying how a child synthesizes information, it gives much insight into what are the strengths and weaknesses of the child as he or she grows, and also it exposes a niche in the development of the child and especially if one concentrates on the formal and developed learning environments and setups where children grow in. Learning Mechanisms Theories Some researchers have formulated theories suggesting that young children have complex cognitive senses that are used by the young children to comprehend what is around them (Piaget, 1920). Swiss psychologist argued that the cognitive structures of the young children developed gradually through various stages. He concluded that the external and internal environment surrounding the child leads to the gradual intellectual development of the child and mostly depends on the coordination of childs senses of hearing and touch (Gibson, 1973). Many scholars researched the childs sense of sight and hearing and some researchers, for example, Gibson (1973) noted that a childs learning ability was so rapid since the child was able to conceptualize the objects that were around them, and this made some scientists suggest that the mind of a child operates like a computer since the mind processes information very quickly Garner (1970) did a research on the social background of a child and how it influenced the childs thinking and the power to apprehend various things that were in the childs surrounding. He was also interested in understanding on how people and culture influenced development thinking of a child and he found that there was a zone of proximal development where there is a bandwidth of competence (Brown Reeve, 1987). It suggests that whatever a child can do with assistance of adults can also be done by a child without any assistance, underpinning the rapid development of a childs brain (Dore, Franklin, Miller Ramer, 1976). A Standard View: Acquiring Lexical Knowledge In this concept, word learning is fast developing (Bloom, 2000). Nazzi and Bertoncini (2003) described children as efficient learners. Though children being efficient learners, the main obstacle is that people in the society use ambiguous words to refer to an object or person just present making it difficult for the child to comprehend the new word. Despite the children going through all these challenges, it is somewhat seen as the start of social skills that enhance word learning Learning Mechanisms Used for Teaching Children Children and community where the child grows, play a great role in the development of the child. This greatly influences the childs behavior and intelligence hence making them acquire the various behavior that is present in the society. Though some behavior may impact the children positively or negatively. The physical world also influences the learning of children. They understand that objects vulnerable to fall are supported, immovable objects are moved with application of force and that the children stare longer to unusual happenings in the surrounding showing that they are conscious of their physical environment as much as the adults are conscious of their environment (Behl-Chadha, 1996). The early number concept shows that the human brain recognizes representation of the series of pictures and numbers. In a research done by Gibson (1973) some children aged from 6 to 8 months were subjected to the viewing of photographic slides which were grouped into two or three pictures per slide. As the children viewed the pictures, the interest of the children in viewing the photos fell by fifty percent and as the photos went on being repeated, the interest of the children fell further. In any case, when a new photo not previously viewed popped up, the interest of the children towards the photo grew and they got interested in viewing it. This shows that the children are able to process what they view either pictures or numbers (Garner, 1970). Early attention should be paid to a language a child is able to learn and develop according to where he or she has been brought up. They have the ability to differentiate between linguistic and non-linguistic languages and also they can differentiate different languages and sounds. Some research showed that a 2-month-old American born child reacted to some English utterances in more active way than to the Spanish utterances. Also, the child was able to notice the intonations in the utterances and this ensured that the child understood well the language spoken and the reaction and meaning of the statement made. The importance of gaining capacity, strategies, and knowledge which ensures that children are more intelligent and competent as they grow and mature (Behl-Chadha, 1996) As the children grow up they are able to make more complex decisions and thus grown up children are able to perform complex tasks in a more effective and efficient way and this ensures that the limited space and time they have are used in an efficient way to produce better results (Behl-Chadha, 1996)There are also more ways to ensure that there is retention of information for easier remembrance and apprehension of an idea. Metacognition is another learning mechanism that ensures referent selection and retention to children in the age of between 18 and 24 months. This is a phenomenon where a person has a higher level of thinking capacity. It also includes self-correction, controlling of ones mind, planning and execution of one own plan for efficient learning and the continuous gaining of knowledge (Bereiter ; Scardamalia, 1989). If children are not introduced to self-thinking and to self-control of their actions and decisions, in future they will be poor implementers of crucial decisions and tasks thus jeopardizing the effective running of their personal affairs. Though this phenomenon grows gradually as one grows up, some aspects of self-decision making should be introduced earlier in a childs life. Multiple strategies or strategy choices should be effectively enhanced for children to start reasoning and solving various challenging tasks as early as possible. This coupled with multiple intelligence which largely deals with the logical, linguistic and interpersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1997). This should be nurtured at an early stage of growth of the childs life to ensure flexibility of the childs decision making. Children should be motivated to learn, read and tell stories. This will ensure the growth and easier understanding of a language by the child. Reading of the pictured story books enable children to form mental illustrations in their mind to enhance concentration. To ensure that the book is readable to the child, questions may be asked throughout the book and in case the child encounters any hitches, the adult may help with it ensuring that the child is able to effectively answer the question. For example, asking the child the question what happened next? will develop the narrative skills of the child at an early stage. Cultural variations in communication are crucial in how a child grows and develops and it also impacts a childs learning culture (Newell, Shaw Simon, 1958). Though each society has its own unique way in how it communicates, children should be able to understand how to communicate in at least one language since this will inculcate various kinds of knowledge and interaction between the child and other people in the society. Conversing and observation are another way that learning can be enhanced in a child. In different interactions with the people in the society, children observe and reciprocate what they see the adults doing in the society. For example, the Pueblo children are given a chance to experience the adult life and they are allowed to choose what and whom to associate with (Gibson, 1973). In other communities, children are not allowed to directly converse with adults and when the adult talks, the child should better listen, since talking when the adult talks is abominable according to their culture. Conclusion Children behavior and language are always influenced by the community that they have grown up in. Children are able to comprehend what is happening around them and their brain develops rapidly as the child advances in age. Children are actively engaged in making their own decisions that will eventually shape their future destiny. Their zeal and will to know something make them be able to understand and comprehend the various aspects that life offers them on display. Children have the reasoning capacity but they lack the knowledge and experience of life and that is why children are able to adhere to the discipline instilled by adults on them. References Behl-Chadha, G. (1996). Basic-level and superordinate-like categorical representations in early infancy. _Cognition, 60_ (2), 105-141. Bereiter, C. Scardamalia, M. (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 361-392). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from http://ikit.org/fulltext/1989intentional.pdf Brown, A. L., Reeve, R. A. (in press). Bandwidths of competence: The role of supportive contexts in learning and development. To appear in L. S. Liben, D. H. Feldman (Eds.), Development and learning: Conflict and congruence? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Garner, W. (1970). Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development. Eleanor J. Gibson. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1969. Century Psychology Series. Science, 168(3934), 958-959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.168.3934.958 Dore, J., Franklin, M., Miller, R., Ramer, A. (1976). Transitional phenomena in early language acquisition. Journal Of Child Language, 3_ (01). http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000900001288 Howard, G. (1997). Extraordinary minds; portraits of exceptional individuals and an examination of extraordinariness. Retrieved from: www.gurteen.com/gurteen/gurteen.nsf/id/x004DD0DA/ Newell, A., Shaw, J. Simon, H. (1958). Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review, 65(3), 151-166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0048495

Illiteracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Illiteracy - Essay Example The U.S. does not have this capability which many have argued has led to a great increase in the levels of illiteracy in the country. According to a US government report, The State of Literacy in America, released in 1998 by the National Institute for Literacy (NIL) (cited in Roberts, 1998), there has been a significant growth in illiteracy in America. â€Å"Over 90 million US adults, nearly one out of two, are functionally illiterate or near illiterate, without the minimum skills required in a modern society† (Roberts, 1998). Many experts have blamed this failing on an educational system that focuses almost exclusively upon a sight-based reading program that has proven to be ineffective for the majority of learners (Hoerl, 1997). Not surprisingly, there is a very high rate of illiteracy among children and young adults in the juvenile justice system according to a study revealed in the book Retarding America the Imprisonment of Potential. It has been shown that these kids who learn to read while incarcerated have a strikingly lower recidivism rate than those who do not. Despite these findings, the majority of juvenile and adult prisons, as well as many schools and adult assistance institutions, teach the sight-based reading system (Brunner, 1993). Unquestionably, the debate regarding reading education methods have brought about emotional responses from all those affected for over a century. Why Johnny Can’t Read, written by Rudolph Flesch in 1955, sparked a nationwide discussion. Flesch suggested that practically all reading problems experienced by children in the U.S. were caused from educators and publishers who had banned together in an effort to deny phonics instruction. Following the publication of Learning to Read: The Great Debate (Chall, 1967), an evaluation of all published research to date on the effects of various approaches to beginning

Libel law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Libel law - Essay Example ommon libel prompting charges is accusing someone of being a communist, describing a lady as a call girl, calling an attorney a criminal, and condemning a minister for immoral conduct (Amponsah 78). Also, other cases arise due to accusing a father of infringing the confidence of his son, calling a political foe a liar or thief and calling a television character a â€Å"chicken butt" and "local loser". The defenses used in lawsuits are the truth, privilege and fair comment. If a journalist reports something, then it is thought to be true (Lawhorne 98). Also, journalists have the privilege of reporting accurate proceedings. Finally, journalists have the right to fair comment. Hence, what is published is perceived as the truth. The New York Time Co. vs. Sullivan recognized that, for a public official to succeed, a declaration must be printed (Mason 53). In addition, the person who published the statement was aware it would cause havoc, but he or she still disregarded the truth. Some of the court rulings that have had a significant impact on libel law are the case of John Zenger vs. William Cosby (1735), Dow Jones vs. MMAR Group Inc. and Alex Konanykhin vs. Izvestia, the Russian newspaper. All these cases went in favor of the plaintiffs. It also goes to conclude that if a plaintiff has grounds with regards to what was published he or she stands to win in a court of

Contract law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Contract law - Case Study Example As Gavrilovic (2013) has noted, under the Second Schedule of the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, a supplier party should make accommodations for the consumer as a way of fulfilling the spirit of reasonableness of contractual terms. In light of these provisions, the University has provided Ms Edwards adequate accommodation of  £20 discount on her weekly rental fee. This accommodation by the University renders her alleged â€Å"unreasonableness† of the institution’s contract terms a, b and c in the tenancy agreement void. Regulation 5(1) of the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 provides the definition of an unfair contractual term as one that: has not had the input of the consumer or one that substantially impacts the rights and responsibilities of the parties to an extent that it creates an imbalance of the duties or one that negatively affects the spirit of good faith. In this case, Ms Edwards’ acceptable of the tenancy contract terms offered by the University against other less favourable options provided by the private sector can be construed to mean as a student she negotiated for the lower rental fee (Toms, 2009). A contract term that results in â€Å"significant imbalance† and thus unfair to a consumer, requires that the condition has to be seen as detrimental to the consumer and extremely beneficial to the supplier in terms of profits (Gavrilovic, 2013). In this case, the University did not intend to benefit in any way whatsoever by limiting Ms Edwards’ and any other student’s desire to hold parties within the institution’s premises. In fact, the rule is part of the institution’s duty of care in ensuring that the organization’s assets including the human resources are safeguarded from any harm within the University’s property. In light of this second rule, the contractual terms are fair and reasonable to the plaintiff. Lastly, the terms which the

The design of the mortar bomb

The design of the mortar bomb It is important to do studies on existing information regarding the design of the mortar bomb. This will help in giving a critical review about the subject in this study which is the ammunition for 81mm mortar. This chapter will discuss about the parts of the mortar bomb, types of 81mm mortar ammunition, ballistic of mortar, fragmentation of the bomb, aerodynamic forces and moment acting, bomb stability and software used for simulation. From the research, all information will be the guideline in developing this study. This chapter will also increase the understanding of this study in order to ensure success at the end of the second semester. 2.1.1 Background of Mortar Mortars started to be developed when tactical trench lines came into use in the World War I. The objective was to bring casualty into the enemy trenches. The early idea and complex design was the German mine launcher, Minenwerfer but the archetype of a mortar was the British Stokes design in 1915 which was a simple tube with a fixed firing pin at the bottom end, where a bomb was dropped and ignited to launch the bomb out from the barrel to the target. Basically, mortar is a stumpy tube designed to fire a projectile at an angle higher than 45 degrees but lower than 85 degrees so that it falls on the enemy territory. Figure 2.1 (a): Minenwerfer (www.landships.freeservers.com) Figure 2.1 (b): Stokes Mortar (www.landships.freeservers.com) 2.1.2 Types of Mortar There are no precise definitions in categorising the mortar. Therefore it is helpful to group them as light, medium or heavy. 2.1.2.1 Light Mortars Mortars of approximately 50 to 70mm size of calibre which are laid by hand meaning they have no baseplate or bipod and have very simple sighting systems. They are generally carried at platoon level. Figure 2.2: Light mortar (www.flamesofwar.com) 2.1.2.2 Medium Mortars All other conventional man portable mortars, with calibres sizing up to approximately 110mm. They are usually pooled in specialist support sections at company or battalion level. They have base plate, bipods, and sophisticated sighting system. Figure 2.3: Medium mortar (www.gosfordhobbies.com.au) 2.1.2.3 Heavy Mortars Mortars which are too heavy to be carried and which are therefore vehicle mounted or towed, although it should be noted that light and medium mortars are frequently vehicle mounted for tactical even though they may be man portable. Figure 2.4: Heavy mortar (www.missing-linx.com) 2.1.3 Mortar Ammunition It is the mortar bomb, a streamlined metal shell having stabilising vanes at the tail which is normally filled with explosives. The mortar bomb gained its thrust through the burning of an amount propelling charge placed in the tube. The size of mortar bomb varies depending on the inner diameter of the mortar. Mortar ammunition can be categorised depending on their fillings and purposed as: i. High Explosive (HE) is use for fragmentation and blast. It causes troop casualties and damage to light material. ii. Red Phosphorus (RP), White Phosphorus (WP) smoke. It is used to screen, signal, and act as an incendiary. iii. Illumination. Used to illuminate, signal, and mark. iv. Training Practice (TP). Training items are completely inert. Practice items may or may not contain explosive sections such as propellant charges or spotting charges. 2.2 Mortar Bomb Parts The construction of a mortar bomb is normally consists of fuze, casing with obturation baffles, cartridge and fin. Every part mentioned has different purpose on the bomb. Figure 2.5: A typical mortar bomb 2.2.1 Fuze The purpose of a fuze is to initiate a projectile when it strikes a target or at an appropriate point in its flight. It cannot be accidentally initiated in storage, transportation, or in the weapon when it is fired. Fuze used on mortar bomb is the nose fuze type, a simple percussion fuzes which function when the nose of the shell is crushed on impact with the target. This type of fuze is normally fitted to High explosives (HE) and white phosphorus smoke ammunition. Those used with HE shells often incorporate an optional delay setting which allows the projectile to penetrate the target before functioning. Figure 2.6: Projectiles with nose fuze (www.globalsecurity.org) 2.2.2 Casing The casing carries fillings which determine the purpose of the ammunition. For HE fillings, it is designed to provide maximum fragmentation during explosion when detonated by the fuze. The material used in governing the casing is normally forged steel and cast iron. Figure 2.7: Cut-section of the casing 2.2.3 Obturation The diameter of a mortar bomb must be less than that of the tube from which it is to be fired or otherwise it could not be loaded. For the bomb to drop straight to the bottom of the barrel without being supported on a cushion of air there must be a gap between the outer wall of the bomb and the inner wall of the tube. This gap is known as windage. Windage allows expanding propellant gases to flow past the bomb and vent into the atmosphere and thus lower the thrust of the bomb when it is launched. Obturation provides a close down to this gap. 2.2.3.1 Obturating Baffles To prevent the excessive loss of gas on firing is to machine series of baffles around the widest part of the casing. The baffles create turbulence in the windage gap between the bomb and the internal surface of the barrel, and thus prevent the gases from flowing freely upwards. Figure 2.8: Obturating baffles system (Cranfield Institute of Technology) 2.2.3.2 Obturating Ring One of the most significant advances in modern mortar bomb design was the invention of the plastic obturating ring, an expanding split ring sitting in a single groove in the bomb casing. This system provides excellent obturation. Figure 2.9: Obturating ring system (Cranfield Institute of Technology) 2.2.4 Cartridge Cartridge carries propellants. Upon firing, a pin strikes the primer at the base of the cartridge and ignites the propellant powder, which burns rapidly and generates expanding gases. The gases are forced down the length of the barrel, pushing the projectile in front of them and eventually out of the barrel. 2.2.4.1 Primary Cartridge The primary cartridge carries the initiating system and the first increment of the propelling charge. It fits into the central channel in the spigot of the tail section. When the propellant in the primary cartridge is ignited, the cartridge ruptures at point corresponding to the holes in the tail spigot. The flames which come from the tail spigot then ignite the augmenting cartridges, which are fitted around the tail of the bomb. 2.2.4.2 Augmenting Cartridge Most mortar bombs have augmenting cartridges which are ignited by the primary cartridge and which provide the full charge for achieving maximum range. For firing at shorter range, increments can be removed quickly and discarded. Figure 2.10: Primary and augmenting cartridge (Royal Ordnance) 2.2.5 Fin Fin provides stability to the projectile. Attached fin projectile does not need some sort of rifling bore to be launched since it does not require spinning in order to gain stability in flight. 2.3 Ballistic of Mortar Ballistic is characteristic for the motion of objects moving under their own momentum and the force of gravity. Mortars operate at low pressure compared to guns. It is possible to increase the pressure generated in the bore on firing but this requires a stronger, and heavier barrel and a bigger baseplate. Such solutions are possible for vehicle-mounted or towed equipments, but not for manportable mortars. All the work done by the expanding propellant gases in accelerating the bomb to its maximum velocity is achieved in the short distance travelled in the bore by the widest part of the bomb, which carries the obturating ring or baffles. After this part of the bomb has emerged from the muzzle the expanding gases continue to accelerate through the increasing gap into the atmosphere. In a typical mortar the distance travelled in the bore by the obturating part of the bomb is less then one meter. Any increase in this distance would produce a higher muzzle velocity and thus increased range, but this would be at the expense of portability. The muzzle velocity of typical 81-mm mortar bomb fired at maximum charged is around 300 m/s and this produces a maximum range in the region of 5000-6000 m. The tactical need for the infantry to engaged targets beyond this range is not so great as to outweigh the advantages of current weapon systems, with their portability, flexibility and speed into and out of action. Most mortar fire bomb at subsonic velocities and this avoids the ballistic complication of the transonic and supersonic zones. It is called subsonic if all the speeds considered are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present, supersonic when the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound. In the past the transonic zone presented a barrier through which mortar bomb could not fly without becoming catastrophically unstable, but this was largely the consequence of crude manufacture and assembly which resulted in asymmetric and inherently unstable ammunition. Modern mortar bomb are manufactured to close tolerance and they are thus more stable in flight an can be fired at supersonic velocities if greater ranges are required. Tampella long-barrelled 81-mm, 120-mm and 160-mm mortars fire bombs at muzzle velocities of up to 400 m/s. 2.4 Fragmentation The act of fragments scattering after the bomb is detonate. Fragmentation performance is controlled by fragment mass, fragment velocity and payload. 2.4.1 Fragment Mass Factors governing fragment mass are: i. material properties of the casing ii. thickness of casing wall iii. quantity of explosives iv. detonation velocity of explosives The material of the casing must be neither excessively ductile nor excessively brittle. 2.4.2 Fragment Velocity Factors governing fragment velocity are: i. Quantity of explosive inside casing ii. Energy of the explosives iii. Density of casing material To calculate fragment velocity, Gurney Formula is used: V = (2E) . [ (C/M) (1+C/2M) ] Where: V is the fragment velocity E is the Gurney explosives constant C is the mass of explosives per unit length M mass of casing per unit length Variations in the parameters would lead to a combination of fragment size and velocity which could be optimised for particular applications. In the case of mortar casing, the constraints imposed on the shape by aerodynamic considerations and on both shape and material choice by structural considerations will mitigate against an ideal fragmentation performance. 2.4.3 Payload It is usually desirable to carry the maximum high explosives payload to the target. Such considerations can therefore have a substantial effect on the design of extended range projectiles solutions may include using an extended length of ogive to reduce drag or use a sub-calibre round or to use base bleed. These solutions compromise the payload carrying capacity. 2.5 Aerodynamic Forces and Moment Acting On the Bomb The aerodynamic forces and moments which have measurable effect on a finned type projectile are the drag force, lift force, and pitching moment. Once the projectile leaves the muzzle, its trajectory is determined by many forces. Primarily, gravity exerts a constant pull on the body and acts through the centre of gravity which is determined by the distribution of weight throughout the body. Gravity always produces a uniform vertical acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2. Figure 2.11: Forces and moment during flight (Arrow Tech) 2.5.1 Centre of Gravity An unspin projectile must have its centre of gravity well forward so that it travels nose first. This governs the shape of the typical mortar bomb, which is wide at the nose and tapers toward the tail. The tail assembly must be as light as possible, and in modern designs this is achieved by making of lightweight aluminium alloy. If the bomb body is roughly cylindrical, as in a bomb used as a carrier for an ejecting payload such as smoke canisters or bomblets, the centre of gravity can be moved forward in relation to the overall length of the complete bomb by fitting a long tail boom. 2.5.2 Centre of Pressure The centre of pressure is the point at which wind forces exert no turning moment, and in any unspun projectile this point must be behind the centre of gravity. The lift generated by the fins of a mortar bomb provides a force the move the centre of pressure towards the rear, behind the centre of gravity. This generates a restoring moment that rotates the projectile through its centre of gravity towards the direction of its trajectory, thus progressively reducing yaw. 2.5.3 Drag Force Drag force opposes the forward velocity of the bomb. Drag forces act at the centre of pressure which is a function of the bodys shape and are in the opposite direction as the motion of the bomb. There are three types of drag force that apply, which are: i. Skin drag- friction on the outer surface as it moves through the air ii. Shape drag- caused by low pressure behind the body due to the flow of air around its shape. iii. Wave drag a loss of energy that is put into acoustic waves as the body passes through the air. Particularly strong near the speed of sound in air. Drag coefficient is mainly dependent on the shape of the bomb. In addition to this shape-related coefficient, the aerodynamic drag also depends on the frontal area of bomb, the air density, and the square of the relative air speed. The relationship between drag and these factors can be expressed by: Drag = Where: A is the frontal area is the density of the air is the speed of the bomb relative to the air 2.6 Stability of the Bomb Mortar bomb obtain stability through the use of fins located at the aft end of the bomb. Normally, six, eight, ten or twelve fins are employed. Additional stability is obtained by imparting some spin to the bomb by canting the leading edge of the fins. Fin-stabilized projectiles are very often sub-calibre. A sabot, wood or metal fitted around the projectile, is used to centre the projectile in the bore and provide a gas seal. Such projectiles vary from 10:1 to 15:1 in length-to-diameter ratio. Fin-stabilized projectiles are advantageous because they follow the trajectory very well at high-launch angles, and they can be designed with very low drag thereby increasing range and/or terminal velocity. However, fin-stabilized projectiles are disadvantageous because the extra length of the projectile must be accommodated and the payload volume is comparatively low in relation to the projectile length. For projectiles fired without spin or only with a small spin the stabilising influences mu st be created by aerodynamic forces. For the bomb to be stable, the center of pressure location is required to be behind the center of gravity location when measured from nose. 2.7 PRODAS Simulation software is very important in order to simulate data and to see the behaviour of the projectile. Utilisation of simulation software reduces the cost and the probability of failure for this study. In this study, simulation is the main method determining the projectile behaviour in term of ballistic theory generally, external ballistic theory specifically. PRODAS is produce by the Aero Tech, an Engineering Consulting business with a focus on the defence industry. This software is focuses in advance weapon design with the standard world integrated weapon design tool. Simulation tools provided by PRODAS are: i. Modelling Build a model from a drawing or even a picture. ii. Aerodynamics Compare aerodynamic coefficients from multiple aero estimators. iii. Launch Dynamics Interior ballistics, balloting and jump. iv. Trajectories Fly 4DOF, 6DOF and Body Fixed and Guided Trajectories. v. Terminal Effects Estimate penetration of KE projectiles and lethality of fragmenting or shaped charge warheads. 20

A History of Our Planet :: Creating Writing Essays

A History of Our Planet " Serina where are you?" "Serina?" "I’m here. I was hiding." "What from?" Oh, not much, just sitting and thinking really." So, do you want to come to the beach with us?" God I remember conversations like that. Simple and easy. All we needed was a nice day and a good tan. I look back at that and long for it. Well, sometimes I do. Most of the time I don’t have the energy to remember. If I do get enough time to start to think about that kind of thing I am much more likely to just fall asleep. I guess that is what happens with responsibility, you lose time to remember who you are and what makes you happy. I guess it sounds like I am complaining but I’m not. Not really. I am much happier now. I guess I should tell the whole story. If this is for history then it should be complete. In those early days we all lived in simple beauty and happiness. We were ignorant of things beyond our own pleasure. I would spend days sitting outside and talking to friends. I would make wonderful bags, and jewelry. I loved working with the bark of the trees near my house. It gave me a real connection to nature. Well, what I thought was nature. I had lots of friends we would go to the beach and swim in the surf. I can still almost taste the bitter vinegar taste the ocean had. We never had to cover up we went wearing what was comfortable, usually nothing at all. We had no need for modesty we were all the same. Not that we looked alike but there was no sexual difference. We were all women. This paradise was perfect and uninterrupted until the day that everything went dark. I was lying in my bed and all of a sudden everything was gone. I had no idea what had happened. I couldn’t see. I couldn’t talk. I couldn’t even move my fingers. My mind was racing and all I could do was lie there. For hours I lay there like this. Eventually I began to be able to move my hands and slowly the rest of my body came to life. What I discovered as I awoke was that I was bound and wrapped in a black rubbery sheet. A History of Our Planet :: Creating Writing Essays A History of Our Planet " Serina where are you?" "Serina?" "I’m here. I was hiding." "What from?" Oh, not much, just sitting and thinking really." So, do you want to come to the beach with us?" God I remember conversations like that. Simple and easy. All we needed was a nice day and a good tan. I look back at that and long for it. Well, sometimes I do. Most of the time I don’t have the energy to remember. If I do get enough time to start to think about that kind of thing I am much more likely to just fall asleep. I guess that is what happens with responsibility, you lose time to remember who you are and what makes you happy. I guess it sounds like I am complaining but I’m not. Not really. I am much happier now. I guess I should tell the whole story. If this is for history then it should be complete. In those early days we all lived in simple beauty and happiness. We were ignorant of things beyond our own pleasure. I would spend days sitting outside and talking to friends. I would make wonderful bags, and jewelry. I loved working with the bark of the trees near my house. It gave me a real connection to nature. Well, what I thought was nature. I had lots of friends we would go to the beach and swim in the surf. I can still almost taste the bitter vinegar taste the ocean had. We never had to cover up we went wearing what was comfortable, usually nothing at all. We had no need for modesty we were all the same. Not that we looked alike but there was no sexual difference. We were all women. This paradise was perfect and uninterrupted until the day that everything went dark. I was lying in my bed and all of a sudden everything was gone. I had no idea what had happened. I couldn’t see. I couldn’t talk. I couldn’t even move my fingers. My mind was racing and all I could do was lie there. For hours I lay there like this. Eventually I began to be able to move my hands and slowly the rest of my body came to life. What I discovered as I awoke was that I was bound and wrapped in a black rubbery sheet.